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See cast and crew IMDB SE SA
Special Effects: San Andreas (IMDB) Rockstar Games Entertainment Presents Directed by Andrew Adamson Produced by Allison Janney Executive Producer James Cromwell Based on Dan Navarro Written by Roger L. Jackson Clifton Collins Jr. Samuel L. Jackson Co Produced by Andrew Stanton Ed Asner Original Score Thomas Newman Editor by Sim Evan -Jones Production Designer Alfred Molina Visual Effects Superviors Tobey Maguire Co Assiociate by Amanda Leighton Natalie Palamides Assiociate Produced by Kristen Li Unit Producer Managers James Franco First Producer Managers Max Charles First Producer Production Ty Burrell Second Producer Managers Willem Dafoe Second Producer Production Alexander Gould Cast Rest Cast McLeach was first introduced to Cody when the boy fell into a pit-trap after he befriended a rare and magnificent eagle known as Marahute beforehand. The boy still had one of her feathers as a parting gift - which would prove to be a mistake as McLeach noticed the feather and decided to kidnap the boy to help him track down the eagle (though McLeach was also intending on kidnapping the boy regardless, so as not to risk being found by the authorities). Cody told him the feather was a secret and he couldn't tell McLeach who gave it to him, but McLeach insists he knows who gave him it seeing as to how has the exact same feather of Marahute's mate whom he killed. McLeach proceeds to toss Cody's backpack to crocodiles to trick the rangers into believing that the boy had been eaten by the animals and thus covering his tracks - meanwhile Cody is driven to McLeach's lair where he is soon put in a cage alongside a collection of rare and protected Australian wildlife, many of which are living in terrible conditions. However, Cody is in luck as two mice from the Rescue Aid Society are soon sent to aid him, being none other than Bernard and Bianca, the heroes of the first film - upon arriving in Australia the two mice become aware of McLeach's true plan once they track him down. Knowing that Cody was emotionally attached to the eagle, McLeach cruelly lied to the boy, telling him that he heard from the radio that the Marahute had been shot by another hunter and thus, nobody was around to guard her eggs - however, this was a facade and when Cody ran off to find the eggs, McLeach followed in a large truck. He also brought along his lizard sidekick Joanna so that she could eat the eggs and thus, ensure McLeach gets even more wealth via making Marahute the last of her kind. McLeach proceeds to capture Cody and Marahute, taking them to a cliff where he ties Cody up and decides to feed the boy to a swarm of crocodiles since he had outlived his usefulness - but Bernard manages to stop the machine McLeach was using to lower Cody into the river. McLeach responded by getting out of the vehicle and personally started firing at the rope holding Cody with a shotgun, but once again Bernard thinks fast and tricks Joanna into chasing him - causing her to knock both McLeach and herself into the river in the process. While in the river McLeach is attacked by crocodiles, but he fends them off. After a while, the crocodiles departed and McLeach taunts them triumphantly thinking that he out did them. However, as McLeach turned around and notices Joanna waving good-bye, he realizes in horror that the crocodiles were not actually afraid of him, but were swimming away from a huge waterfall. McLeach panics and tries to escape, but is swept over the falls and plunges from the waterfall to his watery grave. McCleach was briefly seen in the episode "House of Crime", where he got into a heated and acrimonious argument against Stromboli. McLeach is an extremely traitorous, ruthless, cruel, murderous, and greedy man, a person who is so evil, brutal, menacing, and merciless that he would willingly kill anyone, including children, if they got in the way of his sinister designs. Sadistic, monstrous, remorseless, destructive, and wicked, but also exceptionally manipulative, charismatic, deceitful, and cunning, McLeach is an insanely violent, immoral, unstable, intimidating, and treacherous poacher who hunts down rare animals and then keeps them in torturous conditions only for him to kill or sell them to the highest bidder, and would stop at absolutely nothing to achieve his evil goals, whether it's through lies, bargaining, threats or blackmail. However, McLeach does have something of a comedic edge, but this only highlights his cruelty and sadism, as well as the fact that it is normally at the expense of others. Contradictory to his appearance and manner of speaking, McLeach is a smart person who has actually shown to be quite canny and intelligent, so much that he didn't underestimate Cody even though he was a boy he could still tell the rangers on his poaching and decided to kidnap and then fake that he was eaten by the crocodiles. He also realized that Cody possessed an emotional connection between the boy and the eagle he was hunting, so he pretended to free and then sadistically lied that the eagle was dead and followed him to her nest where he was able to capture her. So, McLeach is utterly psychotic and certifiable that he was willing to eat the eagles' eggs so that it stayed rare and would have fed Cody to a swarm of hungry and vicious crocodiles. As shown by his own twisted version of "Home on the Range", McLeach enjoys inflicting pain on animals, which is also revealed by the conditions he kept the animals he poached and the way he constantly threatens and insults his pet lizard, Joanna. However, despite how much McLeach is irritated by Joanna, he still does not kill her; although he does come close in parts of the film. He is also highly sarcastic, vituperative, cynical, uncomplimentary, and contumelious, after cornering Cody he mockingly pretends to be scared that he might call the Rangers and turn him in to justice. He is also not above torturing people for information and has also shown to possess extreme arrogance, as shown when he had fended off a swarm of crocodiles, McLeach proceeded to yell triumphantly and didn't realize that a waterfall was behind him and later fell to his death, as well as boasting about having a third grade education, showing he is all too sure of himself when overestimating his intelligence. Initially, Stromboli seemed like he was a fun-loving, gregarious, charismatic, but slightly moody puppeteer. Later on, however, he was revealed to be a manipulative and obnoxious psychopath, and foolishly revealed to Pinocchio that he would use his chopped up body as firewood once he was done with him. So Stromboli fits the classic bill of psychopathy, seemingly charming, but being greedy, violent, ruthless, and egotistical, underneath his exterior. Though he did not possess many of the features many later Disney villains would possess, Stromboli managed to terrify many generations, with his murderous and infanticidal declarations and hot-blooded temper. At first Stromboli portrayed himself as a large, but friendly man who wished for Pinocchio to perform in his show, which Pinocchio did with glee (in his famous "I have no strings" melody). However, after the show had finished, Stromboli showed his true nature when Pinocchio wished to return home to Geppetto (though he would be back in the morning). Stromboli declared Pinocchio was "home" and threw him into a cage, threatening to chop the puppet into firewood when he became too old to perform. Pinocchio was freed from the cage by the Blue Fairy and Jiminy Cricket but is scolded for lying to the Blue Fairy and ignoring Jiminy Cricket's advice. Stromboli is not heard of again following this encounter, but his marionette show is presumably bankrupt after realizing that his star attraction is missing. He does have a bit of a temper, and often loses it. He tends to say bad words in Italian whenever he loses his temper. Stromboli made an appearance in House of Crime where he is seen arguing with Percival C. McLeach. Later that same episode, Stromboli was imprisoned with other Disney Villains as suspects of mysterious disappearances. Stromboli made a cameo appearance in Mickey's Magical Christmas and Mickey vs. Shelby during Mad Hatter's hat performance. In Mickey's House of Villains, Stromboli joined the villains as they took over the House of Mouse. He is seen on the conga line behind Lucifer during It's Our House Now!. In the live action semi-remake Geppetto, Stromboli was played by Brett Spiner (Data on Star Trek: the Next Generation). Here, he is depicted as an arrogant, mendacious, exploitative, and obnoxious bully who constantly argues with his ventriloquist dummy. In the movie, after learning that Pinocchio was a stringless puppet, Stromboli asked him if he liked to sing and dance. Geppetto refused to let him get involved in show business and that he shouldn't talk to strangers. After getting in trouble, Pinocchio runs away from home to live with Stromboli as well as performing for his puppet show. After the show, Stromboli and his ventriloquist dummy were counting the money made from the show. Pinocchio was seen locked in a cage. Stromboli refused to let him out, because it is a dark, cruel world out there and, more importantly, it is part of the contract he signed. When Geppetto came by, Stromboli covered Pinocchio's cage with a quilt and hid him outside. He lied to Geppetto that Pinocchio went off on his own. After he left, Stromboli discovers that Pinocchio did wander off and learns that he was headed to Pleasure Island. Knowing what really happens there, Stromboli and his dummy went off to retrieve him before his father does. Later, the Blue Fairy shows Geppetto what Stromboli is really like and what he really wants from Pinocchio. At Pleasure Island, Stromboli followed Pinocchio around, but the Ringmaster tells him that adults aren't allowed there. When Pinocchio tries to get on the rollercoaster, Geppetto and Stromboli were fighting each other, only to have the fight broke up and that Stromboli was escorted out of there (though Geppetto manages to dodge the stilt men). Back in the toyshop, Stromboli had been waiting for them and that he showed Geppetto the contract Pinocchio signed. He pushed Geppetto aside, ransomed Pinocchio, and went off. After the Blue Fairy turned him into a real boy, Stromboli realized that no one would pay to see a real boy. In the end, he was repeatedly attacked by the Blue Fairy and fled. Since Beta 1.9 pre-release 6, a single Ender Dragon appears in each world's End, and can be fought and killed. She swoops at the player, destroying any blocks she passes through, except Obsidian, indestructible blocks (such as Bedrock), Iron Bars, and End Stone. Once an Ender Dragon is killed, an End Gateway appears in the vacinity, with a dragon egg on top. The end gateway leads to the "Outer End". Upon defeat, the Ender Dragon drops around 12,000 Experience Orbs (which take a player with no experience to around level 72), activates the Exit Portal, and spawns a dragon egg on top of the portal frame. When one Ender Crystal is placed on each edge of the exit portal—for a total of 4—then the dragon will respawn; however, when defeated, she drops a lot less experience and no dragon egg. Appearance The Ender Dragon is a huge black dragon that dominates the End. She is speculated to be the leader of the Endermen; however, this is not confirmed. After entering The End, Steve, Alex, or any player, must fight the Ender Dragon and kill her, or he will die/be trapped in the End forever; the game will not allow any player to exit the End alive unless the Ender Dragon is slain, except in cases if they don't have any more resources. The Ender Dragon is a giant, black dragon with glowing purple eyes. She is the second-largest mob in the game; only the unimplemented Giant is larger. She has a few dark gray features, such as the large wings and spikes, and various other parts of her body. Similar to the eyes of Endermen and Spiders, the Ender Dragon's eyes are visible through darkness, so the player can see her coming from anywhere in The End. The Ender Dragon lives in the dark dimension known as The End, which serves as the End stage of sandbox-style game. The Ender Dragon can destroy almost any block (excluding End Stone, Obsidian, and Bedrock) in the game and therefore the player cannot make their own structure until the dragon is defeated. The Ender Dragon flies around The End and is healed by Ender Crystals on top of Obsidian pillars. While she has the same color scheme of a Enderman, she does not have the same ability of teleporting like one. The Ender Dragon is extremely hostile and will try to kill the player at all costs. When the Ender Dragon is finally slain, she will drop enough experience for the player to get to over level 75 and leaves a portal back to the Overworld. The Ender Dragon is an extremely destructive and dangerous creature who will destroy any blocks she comes into contact with, except obsidian, end stone, bedrock, command blocks, barriers, and iron bars, end portal blocks, end portal frames, and end gateway blocks. Instead of destroying them, the Ender Dragon passes through them. When hit, an Ender Dragon makes roaring, growling and snarling noises. The flapping of its wings can also be heard as the dragon moves. The Ender Dragon has a purple health bar that appears at the top of the player's screen. This bar indicates the remaining health of the resident Ender Dragon. Each End dimension houses a single Ender Dragon whose health is periodically healed by nearby ender crystals. Destroying an ender crystal while the Ender Dragon is being healed by it (indicated by a series of circles appearing between the ender crystal and the Ender Dragon) will cause the Ender Dragon to take 10 damage. The Ender Dragon takes 1-4 normal damage +1 when hit in any part except the head. Any living entities hit by the dragon's wings will be dealt 5 damage and thrown through the air, sometimes to fatal heights or off the island. Living entities hit by the dragon's head will take 10 damage. Neither of these effects is applied for 1-2 second after the dragon takes damage. The dragon has a 10-second-long breath attack that does damage (like a Lingering Potion of Harming) after the first half-second, and an exploding fireball that acts much like a Lingering Potion of Harming II. The dragon doesn't take damage from snowballs, eggs, or other attacks that normally deal no damage. The dragon has four states: circling, strafing, charging, and landed. It begins in the circling state. When landed and cumulative damage while landed exceeds 50, it will take off (to start circling) and reset the accumulator. The accumulator is not reset if the dragon takes off naturally. When circling, the dragon will circle outside the ring of pillars if ender crystals remain or inside the ring if not. With increasing chances as crystals are destroyed it will land on the empty portal or will strafe a player within 64 blocks of the portal. When strafing, the dragon will fly towards the target player and shoot a fireball when within 64 blocks before resuming circling. When charging, the dragon will fly rapidly towards the target player's position at the start of the charge, then resume circling whether or not the player was actually hit. She will not target other mobs, but should it hit an enderman, the enderman will turn hostile towards the Ender Dragon. Blazes, wolves, and zombie pigmen will also turn hostile to the Ender Dragon. Whenever the dragon finds itself nearer than 10 blocks to is current target or more than 150 blocks away, it will choose a new target. When damaged it will target a point just behind itself, causing it to turn away and choose a new target. To land, the dragon flies to the empty portal (approaching from the side opposite the player, if applicable) and perches on top. After 1.25 seconds, if a player is within 20 blocks of the portal it will roar (2 seconds) and then use its breath attack for 3 seconds. While the dragon is using its breath attack, the player can obtain dragon's breath by using a glass bottle on the breath. If no player is near enough for 5 seconds, the dragon will charge at a player within 150 blocks or will take off and begin circling if no player is found. It will also take off and begin circling after the fourth consecutive breath attack. While landed, the dragon is immune to arrows. If it is not landed and takes fatal damage, it will fly to the vicinity of the portal before actually dying. The dragon can be respawned as often as desired by placing player-made craftable ender crystals, but subsequent dragons only drop 500 XP and don't place a dragon egg. When the dragon is respawned, a series of explosions reset the obsidian pillars, iron bars, and ender crystals. Ender Dragons can attack by charging at the player's lower waist, with their wings tucked in and diving downward. If hit with anything while swooping towards the player, even a fist, they will turn around and fly away. Ender Crystals that sit on top of the Obsidian Towers will heal them. Ender Dragons have the ability to fly around the sky and shoot purple fire charges (Ender Acid) at her victims. After a while, they will go down and hover above the inactive End Portal while constantly spraying Ender Acid out of their mouths, similar to how a dragon breathes fire when attacking. They would also be continuously healed by the Ender Crystals. The Wither are major antagonists in the Minecraft franchise. They serve as the secondary antagonists in the original game, Minecraft, and one Wither, named the Wither Storm, serves as the main antagonist of the first half for Season 1 of Minecraft: Story Mode, and a major antagonist of that Season. The Wither is one of the most dangerous and aggressive monsters in the game and is the second boss added to Minecraft. However, it does not spawn in any dimension, and actually has to be crafted by the player in order to be fought. It can be considered the boss mob for the Nether due to it being constructed of Soul Sand and Wither Skeleton skulls, items only found in the Nether. There are two kinds of Wither, the normal variant and the Wither Storm, the more destructive and cataclysmic variant created from the result of a Wither combining with a Command Block. Compared to a regular Wither, a Wither Storm's powers are so immense that it is more like an incarnation of the God of Destruction. Its Wither Skill projectile's firepower are far more destructive than a normal Wither's, and has developed the ability to project powerful tractor beam that sucking in any mobs or blocks in it, and inflicting them with Wither Sickness upon being devoured. A Wither Storm can also display God-like strength and durability, as its tentacles can easily break through Obsidian walls like a twig, even before it reaches its massive size, and is immune to conventional weapons. Its regenerative ability that comes from a Command Block used to create it is so potent that even after being blown into pieces with Formidi-Bomb, a Wither Storm can eventually resusciate in mere minutes as well as allowing some huge chunks of it to grow into entire creature and take on lives of their own, which explained why two smaller Wither Storm can emerge alongside the original one. It means had Ivor's Wither Storm allowed itself to mutilate several times with destructive weapons such as Formidi-Bombs whilst its Command Block remained intact, it would allowed Wither Storm to overrun the whole world (which fortunately never happened). In spite of the God-like strength it possesses, a Wither Storm can actually be destroyed for good, as it has few weaknesses. It is true that it cannot withstand a Formidi-Bomb's explosion, and can be incapacitated by it, but using such a highly destructive weapon is not recommended as should it blow into pieces, the Wither Storm would split into three or more creatures. First thing that can delay the creature's advance is mutilation by Endermen. An Enderman's ability to dismantle and moving blocks causes rapid and significant harm on a Wither Storm, and an entire horde is enough to keep harming it that it cannot regenerate. The only thing that can destroy a Wither Storm as well as its bretherens is destroying the Command Block used to create it, with weapons that enchanted with the same power with the Command Block itself. A wither storm has another unique ability: its heads can pop out inside its body, as shown in Episode 4: A Block in a Hard Place, where Jesse went inside Ivor's Wither Storm, and two of its heads attacked him by popping out from the skin. To create a Wither, the player must arrange four Soul Sand blocks in a capital "T" shape, and place three wither skeleton skulls on top. The Wither will appear instantly, staying still, while beginning charging its health and cannot be damaged in this time. Once fully charged, a large explosion happens around it, and it begins attacking anything in sight aside from other Undead monsters (Zombies, Skeletons, etc.). A Wither can destroy any block except Bedrock, and therefore cannot be contained. Once the player has worn it down to half health, it forms "Wither Armor" that protects it from arrows. The player must then finish it off at close range. When killed, it drops the Nether Star, an ingredient to the Beacon, a powerful block that gives the player enhanced powers. Note: The wither is not created in a crafting table. Instead, the components of the wither must be placed/stacked in a particular shape (similar to an Iron Golem), following the shape outlined in the table. An Ender Crystal is a type of pseudo-block (tile entity) that can be found in limited numbers but naturally in The End. They are situated on top of large and tall towers made of obsidian, on top of a block of bedrock. They are able to be crafted as of 1.9, and they are easy to break, only requiring to be hit by any attack. However, the Ender Dragon's flying through it does not count for this. Destroying it will cause a large explosion that will kill a player unless they are properly protected. This can cause damage to the Ender Dragon and any other mob that was also close enough to the detonation. Due to the fact that they are on a tall structure, sometimes exceeding 30 or more blocks high, the explosion can likely knock players off the tower to a fatal fall. The Ender Crystals slowly heal the Ender Dragon if it is within a large proximity to it. It is worth mentioning that the Ender Crystal is an entity and not a block. Therefore, it has a hit-box mechanic and health. However, its health is effectively 0 hearts, which means that any form of hostile actions, even those which do not cause damage, will destroy the entity. This is demonstrated by the fact that Snowballs, which do not cause damage to most mobs, can destroy it. An Ender Crystal can be spawned using the /summon command, or it can be placed down after being crafted. Destroying an Ender Crystal causes a large explosion, almost the size of a charged Creeper, so it is best to destroy it with a ranged attack. When an Ender Dragon gets near the crystal, it will start to heal the damage it took. However, if the Ender Dragon comes into contact with the Ender Crystal, it will blow up and damage the Ender Dragon. When a crystal charging the Ender Dragon is destroyed, the dragon will take 10 damage. Despite being only naturally spawned in the End, it is possible to use mods or map editors to spawn them in to be used as traps or as decoration. Players can also use the /summon command to make an Ender Crystal. In 1.9 snapshots, Ender Crystals can be found in the 'Decoration Blocks' section in a player's inventory or crafted using seven glass, an Eye of Ender, and a Ghast Tear. A Block of Diamond, also known as a Diamond Block, is a Block that first appeared in Minecraft Indev, and it can be crafted by putting nine Diamonds in a Crafting Table. Diamond Blocks can only be mined successfully with an Iron or Diamond Pickaxe. To get the Diamonds back, simply put the Diamond Block in the Crafting Grid to split it back into nine Diamonds. Diamond Blocks can be used to build a "pyramid" for a Beacon, as well as "stronghold walls". However, because Diamond is hard to obtain in large quantities, using it for "stronghold walls" is not practical. Diamond blocks can be found in doorless rooms inside Woodland Mansions, and those Diamond Blocks are usually encased in Obsidian or Lava inside said rooms. Beds are a crafted utility block that a Player can sleep in and set their spawn point. Beds were added in Beta 1.3 for the PC, and introduced in Pocket Edition Alpha 0.4.0. Sleeping in a bed will change the world time to Dawn when all of the players within the Minecraft world are sleeping. It will also set the user's spawn point to right next to the bed. The spawn point is not tied to the bed itself; instead, the game checks for a bed's presence when a player dies, and it acts accordingly. This allows for the bed to be moved while still preserving the spawn point, as long as a bed is still nearby at the time of Death. There are four occasions when beds cannot be slept in: A craft or trade is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. In a historical sense, particularly the Middle Ages and earlier, the term is usually applied to people occupied in small-scale production of goods, or their maintenance, for example by tinkers. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan and rarely by craftsperson (craftspeople). Historically, the more specialized crafts with high value products tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The skill required by their professions and the need to be permanently involved in the exchange of goods often demanded a generally higher level of education, and craftsmen were usually in a more privileged position than the peasantry in societal hierarchy. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work and therefore had to rely on the exchange of goods. Some crafts, especially in areas such as pottery, woodworking, and the various stages of textile production, could be practiced on a part-time basis by those also working in agriculture, and often formed part of village life. Once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could then call himself a master of his craft. This system of a stepwise approach to mastery of a craft, which includes the obtainment of a certain amount of education and the learning of skills, has survived in some countries of the world until today. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the end of the Industrial Revolution. The mass production of goods by large-scale industry has limited crafts to market segments in which industry's modes of functioning or its mass-produced goods would not or cannot satisfy the preferences of potential buyers. Moreover, as an outcome of these changes, craftspeople today increasingly make use of semi-finished components or materials and adapt these to their customers' requirements or demands and, if necessary, to the environments of their customers. Thus, they participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft. A guild /g?ld/ is an association of artisans or merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as confraternities of tradesmen. They were organized in a manner something between a professional association, a trade union, a cartel, and a secret society. They often depended on grants of letters patent from a monarch or other authority to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as guild meeting-places. Guild members found guilty of cheating on the public would be fined or banned from the guild. There were several types of guilds, including the two main categories of merchant guilds and craft guilds4 but also the frith guild and religious guild.5 Guilds arose beginning in the High Middle Ages as craftsmen united to protect their common interests. In the German city of Augsburg craft guilds are being mentioned in the Towncharter of 1156. 6 The continental system of guilds and merchants arrived in England after the Norman Conquest, with incorporated societies of merchants in each town or city holding exclusive rights of doing business there. In many cases they became the governing body of a town. For example, London's Guildhall became the seat of the Court of Common Council of the City of London Corporation, the world’s oldest continuously elected local government7 whose members to this day must be Freemen of the City.8 The Freedom of the City, effective from the Middle Ages until 1835, gave the right to trade, and was only bestowed upon members of a Guild or Livery.9 Early egalitarian communities called "guilds" (for the gold deposited in their common funds) were denounced by Catholic clergy for their "conjurations"—the binding oaths sworn among the members to support one another in adversity, kill specific enemies, and back one another in feuds or in business ventures. The occasion for these oaths were drunken banquets held on December 26, the pagan feast of Jul (Yule)—in 858, West Francian Bishop Hincmar sought vainly to Christianise the guilds.10 In the Early Middle Ages, most of the Roman craft organisations, originally formed as religious confraternities, had disappeared, with the apparent exceptions of stonecutters and perhaps glassmakers, mostly the people that had local skills. Gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche11 remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship. In France, guilds were called corps de métiers. According to Viktor Ivanovich Rutenburg, "Within the guild itself there was very little division of labour, which tended to operate rather between the guilds. Thus, according to Étienne Boileau's Book of Handicrafts, by the mid-13th century there were no less than 100 guilds in Paris, a figure which by the 14th century had risen to 350."12 There were different guilds of metal-workers: the farriers, knife-makers, locksmiths, chain-forgers, nail- makers, often formed separate and distinct corporations; the armourers were divided into helmet-makers, escutcheon-makers, harness-makers, harness- polishers, etc.13 In Catalan towns, specially at Barcelona, guilds or gremis were a basic agent in the society: a shoemakers' guild is recorded in 1208.14 In England, specifically in the City of London Corporation, more than 110 guilds,15 referred to as livery companies, survive today,16 with the oldest more than a thousand years old.needed Other groups, such as the Worshipful Company of Tax Advisers, have been formed far more recently. Membership in a livery company is expected for individuals participating in the governance of The City, as the Lord Mayor and the Remembrancer. The guild system reached a mature state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century, with some special privileges for certain occupations remaining today. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, and Lübeck 70.17 The latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the gremios of Spain: e.g., Valencia (1332) or Toledo (1426). Not all city economies were controlled by guilds; some cities were "free." Where guilds were in control, they shaped labor, production and trade; they had strong controls over instructional capital, and the modern concepts of a lifetime progression of apprentice to craftsman, and then from journeyman eventually to widely recognized master and grandmaster began to emerge. In order to become a Master, a Journeyman would have to go on a three-year voyage called Journeyman years. The practice of the Journeyman years still exists in Germany and France. As production became more specialized, trade guilds were divided and subdivided, eliciting the squabbles over jurisdiction that produced the paperwork by which economic historians trace their development: The metalworking guilds of Nuremberg were divided among dozens of independent trades in the boom economy of the 13th century, and there were 101 trades in Paris by 1260.18 In Ghent, as in Florence, the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, and to urbanization. Before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business. The guild was at the center of European handicraft organization into the 16th century. In France, a resurgence of the guilds in the second half of the 17th century is symptomatic of the monarchy's concerns to impose unity, control production and reap the benefits of transparent structure in the shape of more efficient taxation.needed The guilds were identified with organizations enjoying certain privileges (letters patent), usually issued by the king or state and overseen by local town business authorities (some kind of chamber of commerce). These were the predecessors of the modern patent and trademark system. The guilds also maintained funds in order to support infirm or elderly members, as well as widows and orphans of guild members, funeral benefits, and a 'tramping' allowance for those needing to travel to find work. As the guild system of the City of London declined during the 17th century, the Livery Companies transformed into mutual assistance fraternities along such lines. European guilds imposed long standardized periods of apprenticeship, and made it difficult for those lacking the capital to set up for themselves or without the approval of their peers to gain access to materials or knowledge, or to sell into certain markets, an area that equally dominated the guilds' concerns. These are defining characteristics of mercantilism in economics, which dominated most European thinking about political economy until the rise of classical economics. The guild system survived the emergence of early capitalists, which began to divide guild members into "haves" and dependent "have-nots". The civil struggles that characterize the 14th-century towns and cities were struggles in part between the greater guilds and the lesser artisanal guilds, which depended on piecework. "In Florence, they were openly distinguished: the Arti maggiori and the Arti minori— already there was a popolo grasso and a popolo magro".19 Fiercer struggles were those between essentially conservative guilds and the merchant class, which increasingly came to control the means of production and the capital that could be ventured in expansive schemes, often under the rules of guilds of their own. German social historians trace the Zunftrevolution, the urban revolution of guildmembers against a controlling urban patriciate, sometimes reading into them, however, perceived foretastes of the class struggles of the 19th century. In the countryside, where guild rules did not operate, there was freedom for the entrepreneur with capital to organize cottage industry, a network of cottagers who spun and wove in their own premises on his account, provided with their raw materials, perhaps even their looms, by the capitalist who took a share of the profits. Such a dispersed system could not so easily be controlled where there was a vigorous local market for the raw materials: wool was easily available in sheep- rearing regions, whereas silk was not. In Florence, Italy, there were seven to 12 "greater guilds" and 14 "lesser guilds" the most important of the greater guilds was that for judges and notaries, who handled the legal business of all the other guilds and often served as an arbitrator of disputes. Other greater guilds include the wool, silk, and the money changers' guilds. They prided themselves on a reputation for very high quality work, which was rewarded with premium prices. The guilds fined members who deviated from standards. Other greater guilds included those of doctors, druggists, and furriers. Among the lesser guilds, were those for bakers, saddle makers, ironworkers and other artisans. They had a sizable membership, but lacked the political and social standing necessary to influence city affairs.20 The guild was made up by experienced and confirmed experts in their field of handicraft. They were called master craftsmen. Before a new employee could rise to the level of mastery, he had to go through a schooling period during which he was first called an apprentice. After this period he could rise to the level of journeyman. Apprentices would typically not learn more than the most basic techniques until they were trusted by their peers to keep the guild's or company's secrets. Like journey, the distance that could be travelled in a day, the title 'journeyman' derives from the French words for 'day' (jour and journée) from which came the middle English word journei. Journeymen were able to work for other masters, unlike apprentices, and generally paid by the day and were thus day labourers. After being employed by a master for several years, and after producing a qualifying piece of work, the apprentice was granted the rank of journeyman and was given documents (letters or certificates from his master and/or the guild itself) which certified him as a journeyman and entitled him to travel to other towns and countries to learn the art from other masters. These journeys could span large parts of Europe and were an unofficial way of communicating new methods and techniques, though by no means all journeymen made such travels — they were most common in Germany and Italy, and in other countries journeymen from small cities would often visit the capital.21 After this journey and several years of experience, a journeyman could be received as master craftsman, though in some guilds this step could be made straight from apprentice. This would typically require the approval of all masters of a guild, a donation of money and other goods (often omitted for sons of existing members), and the production of a so-called "masterpiece,' which would illustrate the abilities of the aspiring master craftsman; this was often retained by the guild.22 The medieval guild was established by charters or letters patent or similar authority by the city or the ruler and normally held a monopoly on trade in its craft within the city in which it operated: handicraft workers were forbidden by law to run any business if they were not members of a guild, and only masters were allowed to be members of a guild. Before these privileges were legislated, these groups of handicraft workers were simply called 'handicraft associations'. The town authorities might be represented in the guild meetings and thus had a means of controlling the handicraft activities. This was important since towns very often depended on a good reputation for export of a narrow range of products, on which not only the guild's, but the town's, reputation depended. Controls on the association of physical locations to well-known exported products, e.g. wine from the Champagne and Bordeaux regions of France, tin-glazed earthenwares from certain cities in Holland, lace from Chantilly, etc., helped to establish a town's place in global commerce — this led to modern trademarks. In many German and Italian cities, the more powerful guilds often had considerable political influence, and sometimes attempted to control the city authorities. In the 14th century, this led to numerous bloody uprisings, during which the guilds dissolved town councils and detained patricians in an attempt to increase their influence. In fourteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i.e. Slavic, origin were not allowed to join some guilds.23 According to Wilhelm Raabe, "down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend."24 As Ogilvie (2004) shows, the guilds negatively affected quality, skills, and innovation. Through what economists now call "rent-seeking" they imposed deadweight losses on the economy. Ogilvie says they generated no demonstrable positive externalities and notes that industry began to flourish only after the guilds faded away. Guilds persisted over the centuries because they redistributed resources to politically powerful merchants. On the other hand, Ogilvie agrees, guilds created "social capital" of shared norms, common information, mutual sanctions, and collective political action. This social capital benefited guild members, even as it hurt outsiders.25 The guild system became a target of much criticism towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. They were believed to oppose free trade and hinder technological innovation, technology transfer and business development. According to several accounts of this time, guilds became increasingly involved in simple territorial struggles against each other and against free practitioners of their arts. Two of the most outspoken critics of the guild system were Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith, and all over Europe a tendency to oppose government control over trades in favour of laissez-faire free market systems was growing rapidly and making its way into the political and legal system. The French Revolution saw guilds as a last remnant of feudalism. The Le Chapelier Law of 1791 abolished the guilds in France.26 Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations (Book I, Chapter X, paragraph 72): It is to prevent this reduction of price, and consequently of wages and profit, by restraining that free competition which would most certainly occasion it, that all corporations, and the greater part of corporation laws, have been established. (...) and when any particular class of artificers or traders thought proper to act as a corporation without a charter, such adulterine guilds, as they were called, were not always disfranchised upon that account, but obliged to fine annually to the king for permission to exercise their usurped privileges. Karl Marx in his Communist Manifesto also criticized the guild system for its rigid gradation of social rank and the relation of oppressor/oppressed entailed by this system. From this time comes the low regard in which some people hold the guilds to this day. In part due to their own inability to control unruly corporate behavior, the tide turned against the guilds. Because of industrialization and modernization of the trade and industry, and the rise of powerful nation-states that could directly issue patent and copyright protections — often revealing the trade secrets — the guilds' power faded. After the French Revolution they fell in most European nations through the 19th century, as the guild system was disbanded and replaced by free trade laws. By that time, many former handicraft workers had been forced to seek employment in the emerging manufacturing industries, using not closely guarded techniques but standardized methods controlled by corporations. Special Thanks Guilds are sometimes said to be the precursors of modern trade unions. Guilds, however, can also be seen as a set of self-employed skilled craftsmen with ownership and control over the materials and tools they needed to produce their goods. Guilds were more like cartels than they were like trade unions (Olson 1982). However, the journeymen organizations, which were at the time illegal,27 may have been influential. The exclusive privilege of a guild to produce certain goods or provide certain services was similar in spirit and character with the original patent systems that surfaced in England in 1624. These systems played a role in ending the guilds' dominance, as trade secret methods were superseded by modern firms directly revealing their techniques, and counting on the state to enforce their legal monopoly. Some guild traditions still remain in a few handicrafts, in Europe especially among shoemakers and barbers. Some ritual traditions of the guilds were conserved in order organisations such as the Freemasons, allegedly deriving from the Masons Guild, and the Oddfellows, allegedly derived from various smaller guilds. These are, however, not very important economically except as reminders of the responsibilities of some trades toward the public. Modern antitrust law could be said to derive in some ways from the original statutes by which the guilds were abolished in Europe. The economic consequences of guilds have led to heated debates among economic historians. On the one side, scholars say that since merchant guilds persisted over long periods they must have been efficient institutions (since inefficient institutions die out). Others say they persisted not because they benefited the entire economy but because they benefited the owners, who used political power to protect them. Ogilvie (2011) says they regulated trade for their own benefit, were monopolies, distorted markets, fixed prices, and restricted entrance into the guild.21 Ogilvie (2008) argues that their long apprenticeships were unnecessary to acquire skills, and their conservatism reduced the rate of innovation and made the society poorer. She says their main goal was rent seeking, that is, to shift money to the membership at the expense of the entire economy.28 Epstein and Prak's book (2008) rejects Ogilvie's conclusions.29 Specifically, Epstein argues that guilds were cost-sharing rather than rent-seeking institutions. They located and matched masters and likely apprentices through monitored learning. Whereas the acquisition of craft skills required experience-based learning, he argues that this process necessitated many years in apprenticeship.30 The extent to which guilds were able to monopolize markets is also debated.31 For the most part, medieval guilds limited women's participation, and usually only the widows and daughters of known masters were allowed in. Even if a woman entered a guild, she was excluded from guild offices. It's important to note that while this was the overarching practice, there were guilds and professions that did allow women's participation, and that the Medieval era was an ever-changing, mutable society—especially considering that it spanned hundreds of years and many different cultures. There were multiple accounts of women's participation in guilds in England and the Continent. In a study of London silkwomen of the 15th century by Marian K. Dale, she notes that medieval women could inherit property, belong to guilds, manage estates, and run the family business if widowed. The Livre des métiers de Paris (Book of Trades of Paris) was compiled by Étienne Boileau, the Grand Provost of Paris under King Louis IX. It documents that 5 out of 110 Parisian guilds were female monopolies, and that only a few guilds systematically excluded women. Boileau notes that some professions were also open to women: surgeons, glass-blowers, chain-mail forgers. Entertainment guilds also had a significant number of women members. John, Duke of Berry documents payments to female musicians from Le Puy, Lyons, and Paris.32 Women did have problems with entering healers' guilds, as opposed to their relative freedom in trade or craft guilds. Their status in healers' guilds were often challenged. The idea that medicine should only be practice by men was supported by the Catholic Church, royal heads, and secular authorities at the time. It is believed that the Inquisition and witch hunts throughout the ages contributed to the lack of women in medical guilds.32 Scholars from the history of ideas have noticed that consultants play a part similar to that of the journeymen of the guild systems: they often travel a lot, work at many companies and spread new practices and knowledge between companies and corporations.needed Professional organizations replicate guild structure and operation.33 Professions such as architecture, engineering, geology, and land surveying require varying lengths of apprenticeships before one can gain a "professional" certification. These certifications hold great legal weight: most states make them a prerequisite to practicing there.needed Thomas W. Malone champions a modern variant of the guild structure for modern "e-lancers", professionals who do mostly telework for multiple employers. Insurance including any professional liability, intellectual capital protections, an ethical code perhaps enforced by peer pressure and software, and other benefits of a strong association of producers of knowledge, benefit from economies of scale, and may prevent cut-throat competition that leads to inferior services undercutting prices.needed And, as with historical guilds, such a structure will resist foreign competition. The free software community has from time to time explored a guild-like structure to unite against competition from Microsoft, e.g. Advogato assigns journeyer and master ranks to those committing to work only or mostly on free software.needed Copyright 2016 Rockstar Games and Rockstar North In many European countries guilds have experienced a revival as local organizations for craftsmen, primarily in traditional skills. They may function as forums for developing competence and are often the local units of a national employer's organisation. In the City of London, the ancient guilds survive as Livery Companies, all of which play a ceremonial role in the City's many customs. The City of London Livery Companies maintain strong links with their respective trade, craft or profession, some still retain regulatory, inspection or enforcement roles. The senior members of the City of London Livery Companies (known as Liverymen) elect the Sheriffs and approve the candidates for the office of Lord Mayor of London. Guilds also survive in many other towns and cities the UK including in Preston, Lancashire, as the Preston Guild Merchant where among other celebrations descendants of Burgesses are still admitted into membership. With the City of London Livery Companies the UK have over 300 extant guilds and growing.